diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index efb60b8a..3d623a1a 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -1324,6 +1324,11 @@ Matchers to test non-Rails-dependent code:
 class Human < ActiveRecord::Base
   has_one :robot
   delegate :work, to: :robot
+
+  # alternatively, if you are not using Rails
+  def work
+    robot.work
+  end
 end
 
 # RSpec
diff --git a/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent.rb b/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent.rb
index e8119a10..4a72f929 100644
--- a/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent.rb
+++ b/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent.rb
@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
 require 'shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher'
+require 'shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher/stubbed_target'
 
 module Shoulda
   module Matchers
-    # = Matchers for non-Rails-dependent code.
+    # Matchers for non-Rails-dependent code.
     module Independent
     end
   end
diff --git a/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher.rb b/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher.rb
index bcf0caa5..8532c545 100644
--- a/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher.rb
+++ b/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher.rb
@@ -1,5 +1,3 @@
-require 'active_support/deprecation'
-
 module Shoulda # :nodoc:
   module Matchers
     module Independent # :nodoc:
@@ -10,13 +8,14 @@ module Shoulda # :nodoc:
       #   it { should delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman) }
       #
       # Options:
-      # * <tt>:as</tt> - tests that the object being delegated to is called with a certain method
-      #   (defaults to same name as delegating method)
-      # * <tt>:with_arguments</tt> - tests that the method on the object being delegated to is
-      #   called with certain arguments
+      # * <tt>:as</tt> - tests that the object being delegated to is called
+      #    with a certain method (defaults to same name as delegating method)
+      # * <tt>:with_arguments</tt> - tests that the method on the object being
+      #   delegated to is called with certain arguments
       #
       # Examples:
-      #   it { should delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman).as(:deliver_with_haste)
+      #   it { should delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman).
+      #     as(:deliver_with_haste) }
       #   it { should delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman).
       #     with_arguments('221B Baker St.', :hastily => true) }
       #
@@ -27,28 +26,26 @@ module Shoulda # :nodoc:
       class DelegateMatcher
         def initialize(delegating_method)
           @delegating_method = delegating_method
+          @delegated_arguments = []
         end
 
-        def matches?(subject)
-          @subject = subject
+        def matches?(_subject)
+          @subject = _subject
           ensure_target_method_is_present!
+          stub_target
 
           begin
-            extend Mocha::API
-
-            stubbed_object = stub(method_on_target)
-            subject.stubs(@target_method).returns(stubbed_object)
-            subject.send(@delegating_method)
-
-            matcher = Mocha::API::HaveReceived.new(method_on_target).with(*@delegated_arguments)
-            matcher.matches?(stubbed_object)
-          rescue NoMethodError, MiniTest::Assertion
+            subject.send(delegating_method, *delegated_arguments)
+            target_has_received_delegated_method? && target_has_received_arguments?
+          rescue NoMethodError
             false
           end
         end
 
         def description
-          add_clarifications_to("delegate method ##{@delegating_method} to :#{@target_method}")
+          add_clarifications_to(
+            "delegate method ##{delegating_method} to :#{target_method}"
+          )
         end
 
         def does_not_match?(subject)
@@ -70,47 +67,74 @@ module Shoulda # :nodoc:
           self
         end
 
-        def failure_message_for_should
+        def failure_message
           base = "Expected #{delegating_method_name} to delegate to #{target_method_name}"
           add_clarifications_to(base)
         end
+        alias failure_message_for_should failure_message
 
         private
 
+        attr_reader :delegated_arguments, :delegating_method, :method, :subject,
+          :target_method, :method_on_target
+
         def add_clarifications_to(message)
-          if @delegated_arguments.present?
-            message << " with arguments: #{@delegated_arguments.inspect}"
+          if delegated_arguments.present?
+            message << " with arguments: #{delegated_arguments.inspect}"
           end
 
-          if @method_on_target.present?
-            message << " as ##{@method_on_target}"
+          if method_on_target.present?
+            message << " as ##{method_on_target}"
           end
 
           message
         end
 
         def delegating_method_name
-          method_name_with_class(@delegating_method)
+          method_name_with_class(delegating_method)
         end
 
         def target_method_name
-          method_name_with_class(@target_method)
+          method_name_with_class(target_method)
         end
 
         def method_name_with_class(method)
-          if Class === @subject
-            @subject.name + '.' + method.to_s
+          if Class === subject
+            subject.name + '.' + method.to_s
           else
-            @subject.class.name + '#' + method.to_s
+            subject.class.name + '#' + method.to_s
           end
         end
 
-        def method_on_target
-          @method_on_target || @delegating_method
+        def target_has_received_delegated_method?
+          stubbed_target.has_received_method?
+        end
+
+        def target_has_received_arguments?
+          stubbed_target.has_received_arguments?(*delegated_arguments)
+        end
+
+        def stubbed_method
+          method_on_target || delegating_method
+        end
+
+        def stub_target
+          local_stubbed_target = stubbed_target
+          local_target_method = target_method
+
+          subject.instance_eval do
+            define_singleton_method local_target_method do
+              local_stubbed_target
+            end
+          end
+        end
+
+        def stubbed_target
+          @stubbed_target ||= StubbedTarget.new(stubbed_method)
         end
 
         def ensure_target_method_is_present!
-          if @target_method.blank?
+          if target_method.blank?
             raise TargetNotDefinedError
           end
         end
@@ -118,7 +142,8 @@ module Shoulda # :nodoc:
 
       class DelegateMatcher::TargetNotDefinedError < StandardError
         def message
-          'Delegation needs a target. Use the #to method to define one, e.g. `post_office.should delegate(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)`'
+          'Delegation needs a target. Use the #to method to define one, e.g.
+          `post_office.should delegate(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)`'.squish
         end
       end
 
diff --git a/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher/stubbed_target.rb b/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher/stubbed_target.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..cafbe740
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lib/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher/stubbed_target.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+module Shoulda # :nodoc:
+  module Matchers
+    module Independent # :nodoc:
+      class DelegateMatcher::StubbedTarget # :nodoc:
+        def initialize(method)
+          @received_method = false
+          @received_arguments = []
+          stub_method(method)
+        end
+
+        def has_received_method?
+          received_method
+        end
+
+        def has_received_arguments?(*args)
+          args == received_arguments
+        end
+
+        private
+
+        def stub_method(method)
+          class_eval do
+            define_method method do |*args|
+              @received_method = true
+              @received_arguments = args
+            end
+          end
+        end
+
+        attr_reader :received_method, :received_arguments
+      end
+    end
+  end
+end
diff --git a/spec/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher/stubbed_target_spec.rb b/spec/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher/stubbed_target_spec.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..b0d02e07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/spec/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher/stubbed_target_spec.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+require 'spec_helper'
+
+describe Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher::StubbedTarget do
+  subject(:target) { described_class.new(:stubbed_method) }
+
+  describe '#has_received_method?' do
+    it 'returns true when the method has been called on the target' do
+      target.stubbed_method
+
+      expect(target).to have_received_method
+    end
+
+    it 'returns false when the method has not been called on the target' do
+      expect(target).not_to have_received_method
+    end
+  end
+
+  describe '#has_received_arguments?' do
+    context 'method is called with specified arguments' do
+      it 'returns true' do
+        target.stubbed_method(:arg1, :arg2)
+
+        expect(target).to have_received_arguments(:arg1, :arg2)
+      end
+    end
+
+    context 'method is not called with specified arguments' do
+      it 'returns false' do
+        target.stubbed_method
+
+        expect(target).not_to have_received_arguments(:arg1)
+      end
+    end
+
+    context 'method is called with arguments in incorrect order' do
+      it 'returns false' do
+        target.stubbed_method(:arg2, :arg1)
+
+        expect(target).not_to have_received_arguments(:arg1, :arg2)
+      end
+    end
+  end
+end
diff --git a/spec/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher_spec.rb b/spec/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher_spec.rb
index 47fb427c..bc31b124 100644
--- a/spec/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/shoulda/matchers/independent/delegate_matcher_spec.rb
@@ -1,59 +1,46 @@
 require 'spec_helper'
 
 describe Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher do
-  context '#description' do
+  describe '#description' do
     context 'by default' do
       it 'states that it should delegate method to the right object' do
         matcher = delegate_method(:method_name).to(:target)
 
-        matcher.description.should == 'delegate method #method_name to :target'
+        expect(matcher.description)
+          .to eq 'delegate method #method_name to :target'
       end
     end
 
     context 'with #as chain' do
       it 'states that it should delegate method to the right object and method' do
         matcher = delegate_method(:method_name).to(:target).as(:alternate)
+        message = 'delegate method #method_name to :target as #alternate'
 
-        matcher.description.should == 'delegate method #method_name to :target as #alternate'
+        expect(matcher.description).to eq message
       end
     end
 
     context 'with #with_argument chain' do
       it 'states that it should delegate method to the right object with right argument' do
-        matcher = delegate_method(:method_name).to(:target).with_arguments(:foo, :bar => [1, 2])
+        matcher = delegate_method(:method_name).to(:target)
+          .with_arguments(:foo, bar: [1, 2])
+        message = 'delegate method #method_name to :target with arguments: [:foo, {:bar=>[1, 2]}]'
 
-        matcher.description.should ==
-          'delegate method #method_name to :target with arguments: [:foo, {:bar=>[1, 2]}]'
+        expect(matcher.description).to eq message
       end
     end
   end
 
-  it 'supports chaining on #to' do
-    matcher = delegate_method(:method)
-
-    matcher.to(:another_method).should == matcher
-  end
-
-  it 'supports chaining on #with_arguments' do
-    matcher = delegate_method(:method)
-
-    matcher.with_arguments(1, 2, 3).should == matcher
-  end
-
-  it 'supports chaining on #as' do
-    matcher = delegate_method(:method)
-
-    matcher.as(:some_other_method).should == matcher
-  end
-
   it 'raises an error if no delegation target is defined' do
-    expect { Object.new.should delegate_method(:name) }.
-      to raise_exception described_class::TargetNotDefinedError
+    expect {
+      delegate_method(:name).matches?(Object.new)
+    }.to raise_exception described_class::TargetNotDefinedError
   end
 
   it 'raises an error if called with #should_not' do
-    expect { Object.new.should_not delegate_method(:name).to(:anyone) }.
-      to raise_exception described_class::InvalidDelegateMatcher
+    expect {
+      delegate_method(:name).to(:anyone).does_not_match?(Object.new)
+    }.to raise_exception described_class::InvalidDelegateMatcher
   end
 
   context 'given a method that does not delegate' do
@@ -69,32 +56,31 @@ describe Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher do
       post_office = PostOffice.new
       matcher = delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)
 
-      matcher.matches?(post_office).should be_false
+      expect(matcher.matches?(post_office)).to be false
     end
 
     it 'has a failure message that indicates which method should have been delegated' do
       post_office = PostOffice.new
-      matcher = delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)
-
-      matcher.matches?(post_office)
-
       message = 'Expected PostOffice#deliver_mail to delegate to PostOffice#mailman'
-      matcher.failure_message_for_should.should == message
+
+      expect {
+        expect(post_office).to delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)
+      }.to fail_with_message(message)
     end
 
     it 'uses the proper syntax for class methods in errors' do
-      matcher = delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)
-
-      matcher.matches?(PostOffice)
-
       message = 'Expected PostOffice.deliver_mail to delegate to PostOffice.mailman'
-      matcher.failure_message_for_should.should == message
+
+      expect {
+        expect(PostOffice).to delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)
+      }.to fail_with_message(message)
     end
   end
 
   context 'given a method that delegates properly' do
     it 'accepts' do
       define_class(:mailman)
+
       define_class(:post_office) do
         def deliver_mail
           mailman.deliver_mail
@@ -103,16 +89,23 @@ describe Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher do
         def mailman
           Mailman.new
         end
-      end.new.should delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)
+      end
+
+      post_office = PostOffice.new
+
+      expect(post_office).to delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)
     end
   end
 
-  context 'given a method that delegates properly with certain arguments' do
+  context 'given a method that delegates properly with arguments' do
+    let(:post_office) { PostOffice.new }
+
     before do
       define_class(:mailman)
+
       define_class(:post_office) do
-        def deliver_mail
-          mailman.deliver_mail('221B Baker St.', :hastily => true)
+        def deliver_mail(*args)
+          mailman.deliver_mail('221B Baker St.', hastily: true)
         end
 
         def mailman
@@ -123,34 +116,36 @@ describe Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher do
 
     context 'when given the correct arguments' do
       it 'accepts' do
-        PostOffice.new.should delegate_method(:deliver_mail).
-          to(:mailman).with_arguments('221B Baker St.', :hastily => true)
+        expect(post_office).to delegate_method(:deliver_mail)
+          .to(:mailman).with_arguments('221B Baker St.', hastily: true)
       end
     end
 
     context 'when not given the correct arguments' do
       it 'rejects' do
-        post_office = PostOffice.new
-        matcher = delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman).
-          with_arguments('123 Nowhere Ln.')
-        matcher.matches?(post_office).should be_false
+        matcher = delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman)
+          .with_arguments('123 Nowhere Ln.')
+
+        expect(matcher.matches?(post_office)).to be_false
       end
 
       it 'has a failure message that indicates which arguments were expected' do
-        post_office = PostOffice.new
-        matcher = delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman).with_arguments('123 Nowhere Ln.')
-
-        matcher.matches?(post_office)
-
         message = 'Expected PostOffice#deliver_mail to delegate to PostOffice#mailman with arguments: ["123 Nowhere Ln."]'
-        matcher.failure_message_for_should.should == message
+
+        expect {
+          expect(post_office).to delegate_method(:deliver_mail)
+            .to(:mailman).with_arguments('123 Nowhere Ln.')
+        }.to fail_with_message(message)
       end
     end
   end
 
   context 'given a method that delegates properly to a method of a different name' do
+    let(:post_office) { PostOffice.new }
+
     before do
       define_class(:mailman)
+
       define_class(:post_office) do
         def deliver_mail
           mailman.deliver_mail_and_avoid_dogs
@@ -164,41 +159,26 @@ describe Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher do
 
     context 'when given the correct method name' do
       it 'accepts' do
-        PostOffice.new.
-          should delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman).as(:deliver_mail_and_avoid_dogs)
+        expect(post_office).to delegate_method(:deliver_mail)
+          .to(:mailman).as(:deliver_mail_and_avoid_dogs)
       end
     end
 
     context 'when given an incorrect method name' do
       it 'rejects' do
-        post_office = PostOffice.new
         matcher = delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman).as(:watch_tv)
-        matcher.matches?(post_office).should be_false
+
+        expect(matcher.matches?(post_office)).to be_false
       end
 
       it 'has a failure message that indicates which method was expected' do
-        post_office = PostOffice.new
-        matcher = delegate_method(:deliver_mail).to(:mailman).as(:watch_tv)
-
-        matcher.matches?(post_office)
-
         message = 'Expected PostOffice#deliver_mail to delegate to PostOffice#mailman as #watch_tv'
-        matcher.failure_message_for_should.should == message
+
+        expect {
+          expect(post_office).to delegate_method(:deliver_mail)
+            .to(:mailman).as(:watch_tv)
+        }.to fail_with_message(message)
       end
     end
   end
 end
-
-describe Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher::TargetNotDefinedError do
-  it 'has a useful message' do
-    error = Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher::TargetNotDefinedError.new
-    error.message.should include 'Delegation needs a target'
-  end
-end
-
-describe Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher::InvalidDelegateMatcher do
-  it 'has a useful message' do
-    error = Shoulda::Matchers::Independent::DelegateMatcher::InvalidDelegateMatcher.new
-    error.message.should include 'does not support #should_not'
-  end
-end